Challenges Faced When Developing and Implementing an Information System: A Critical Analysis

Information System (IS) development and implementation raises significant challenges in organizations. Besides the technological problems associated with the interoperability and integration of legacy systems, the organizational processes often include several informal practices that result in exceptions in process workflows. Currently, many business
activities rely highly on some Information System, although this normally depends on the organization. Information systems have become an essential element in most organizations, which is to help firms survive the harsh competition of the modern business world. Contemporary organizations need integrated, precise, and state-of-the-art information systems, whose effective management is important for the success of the organization. An information system helps organizations expand the scope of their business activities, modify business control, reshape responsibilities, offer services, and re-design the workflows. The implementation of information systems is usually a continuous process that incorporates the configuration of the information system through feasibility study, assessment, design indoctrination, instruction, adaptation, and installation of the system. Many information systems fail to materialize if the challenges faced at the implementation stage are not managed effectively.
The implementation of an information system entails the procedures executed for completing the systems blueprint, testing, and installation of a new or revised information system before it starts operating. However, the implementation and use of these systems impose extensive and diverse challenges for the effective delivery of organizational reprieve during complex situations. These challenges often surpass technological issues and, to some extent, relate to the central organizational issues of communication, environment, culture, and mission. Information systems are designed to support the critical logistics and transportation issues, alongside the support they offer in organizational communication that is highly intricate by a diverse landscape of the many parties involved.
Information Systems
To understand fully the challenges faced during the development and implementation of an information system, it is important to appreciate the fundamental concept of a system. A system is made up of either elements that have developed into particular patterns over time or those that have been devised into such patterns. A system design for multiple users contains computers and secondary devices that allow users to utilize the system in a synchronized way to accomplish the desired organizational goals and objectives. An information system is an example of this concept that integrates information into technology to enhance the achievements of organizational needs. The system calls for designers and users that have the ability to maintain the dynamic nature of the system within an environment of persistently varying variables (Marchand, Kettinger & Rollins, 2001, 25).
Until the beginning of the 21st Century, there existed a huge gap between the social and technical orientation to problems of information systems. The gap was affecting the ability to solve these problems as well as the efforts to create a discipline of information systems. Information systems are viewed as social science as they include machines and information management formalisms, which are manufactured objects that ought to be included naturally, in collective form information systems. Information systems are often classified into computer science and information technology; however, information systems belong to their own unique discipline that only accentuates on organizations and humans while it utilizes hardware and software with nothing else to do with the two in comprehensive terms. Information systems play an important part in transforming the community and organizations. The systems function as a conduit to link the intersection between business and technology (Shapiro & Varian, 1999, 232). Moreover, information systems perform many tasks simultaneously, such as enabling business entities realize prospective strategic gains. At the same time, information systems provide conveniences to transform the conventional business activities into the contemporary e-business.
The practicability of an information system is a distinctive notion of acceptability of users that draws from utilizing the utilities of the system, and resolves the failures and successes of the information system. In addition, the practicability of the system also signifies the efficiency, effectiveness, and contentment of the system from the perspective of its users. A highly usable system reduces errors and increases the organizations productivity, as well as ensuring the users satisfaction (Maceviciute & Wilson, 2005, 105).
As the contemporary society becomes more and more information-driven, the capacity and maturity of organizations to control the value of its information can indicate the disparity between failure and success. Information systems in an organizational setting typically relies on various resources, among them human resources, software resources, hardware resources, communication resources, and data resources. Because of the technological advancements today, organizations have to espouse new systems to match the competitors pace. The main constituents of any information system for business include finance, vision, and patience throughout the development and implementation of an information system (Shapiro & Varian, 1999, 341).
Challenges Faced In Developing and Implementing an Information System
The implementation of information systems involves the processes carried out for the completion of the system design according to the approved documentation, as well as the testing, installation, and commencement of operation of the new system. The process of implementation is an important part of an information system that results in making the system operative for an organization. At the stage, the program and other elements are taken care of, including elements that have piled in the information system for enhanced results (Maceviciute & Wilson, 2005, 214). It is often quite challenging to sort out these elements. Modern-day research has primarily focused on the technical challenges of the issue, with very little data available concerning the psychological part of these problems. Some of the intermittent challenges in implementing an information system include system specifications and capturing of prerequisites, unarticulated and idealistic goals, managing the complexity of the entire project, among other persistent technical problems. Such issues often lead to systems that lack efficient usability and support regarding the necessary functionalities that promote the resistance by users.    
Although information has turned into one of the most important assets of contemporary organizations, development and implementation of an information system face various difficulties. Among the most common are low efficiency, failures, as well as an insufficient alignment of the system with the needs of the business. Low productivity is an issue that has been identified in terms of software problems connected to the development backlog and repair problems. The demands of creating a new or improving an existing information system have increased beyond the contemporary capacity to develop them. This could be attributed to factors,such as the escalating cost of software improvement, an inadequate supply of funding, and competent personnel (Marchand, Kettinger & Rollins, 2001, 40).
Efforts for the development of information systems have led to a huge number of absolute failures. These failures often occur because of economical differences, such as schedule overruns and issues related to the budget. At times, such failures may occur because of poor quality and inadequate satisfaction by the users of the system. For example, a study conducted by Gladden (1982) approximates that about 75% of information system developments embarked on are never completed, or the ultimate system is never utilized. Another study conducted by the Standish Group in 1995 further reports that of all information systems undertaken; only 16% are delivered on time and within the budget limits. Unfortunately, there exists limited research regarding the main causes of these failures (Checkland, 1985, 313).
From a business viewpoint, there has been an increasing criticism in relation to the meager alignment of most information systems and the needs of the business. Huge amounts of an organizations resources are normally spent in data searching, recording, refinement, and analysis; however, the relationship between information systems, organizational performance, and organizational strategies has been shown to be uncertain (Marchand, Kettinger & Rollins, 2001, 296). For example, many managers and system users continue struggling with situations of scarce information, in which they lack the information they require for the smooth operation of their units. The development of information systems is therefore frequently confronted with the dynamic nature of business as well as the manner in which business operations are organized and sustained by the system.
All these problems are further exacerbated by the increased intricacy and size of software inventions. Since the introduction of information systems, each subsequent generation has introduced new application fields and extensive functionality resulting in larger systems that are difficult to construct, design, and maintain. Furthermore, due to the large number of innovations and technical options available, new technical features are changing the practice of implementing information systems. In general, it seems common that the development of an information system does not often satisfy the needs of an organization, whether they are behavioral, economic, or technical. Accordingly, companies across the world are facing difficulties in developing novel approaches for information system development, as well as in finding sustaining devices and ways of operating the system (Orna, 1999, 291).
The technological effect on an organization that is about to upgrade or introduce an information system is moderated by a pre-existing relationship within the organization, which is characterized by four aspects; information sharing, commitment, interdependence, and trust. Theoretical research has it that technical challenges in the implementation process can have psychological impacts on the users, and may make them feel dissatisfied. Users always want an assurance of security in the kind of technology used to operate an information system. Users may sometimes, feel insecure because of exposure of their activities to monitoring personnel. This factor alone may make the users psychologically and mentally tortured. This perceived pressure may greatly affect the adoption of the system by the users, and may affect the efficiency of performing tasks (Maceviciute & Wilson, 2005, 122). Such feeling would be felt in the case of an upgrade of an established information system or when the system, incorporates new elements.
The aforementioned technical challenge experienced in the course of implementing an information system also adversely affects the users commitment alongside the effects of information sharing. Privacy and security concerns of the users may halt the implementation process due to the system disapproval by these users. An acceptable system must as a result guarantee workers their security and privacy to avoid such psychological impacts, which may lead to the loss of trust and motivation in the system. There are also challenges related to direct communication between the users of the system. These challenges also stem from the involvement of IT, and may lead to difficulties in convincing individuals to adopt an information system (Orna, 1999, 374). However, the main technically related challenges affecting successful implementation of an information system include technological aspects that seem to act as barriers to direct communication, upgrade of the system, integration of the system to the organizational data, system malfunction, and system security, latency and failure. Technological barriers prevent users from sharing knowledge amongst each other, thus affecting coordination between departments and creating a lack of experience between the users.
Most organizations face a dramatic crisis of performance as they expand. Most organizations consider information systems as more efficient and reliable automation agents that substitute human effort. From this perspective, IS are essentially industrial technologies. The benefits of IS are obvious and most of the challenges encountered when implementing and IS are of a technical nature. Better understanding of an IS and the challenges involved with its development and use must draw from the understanding that the technology interacts with humans. Technology is very important in IS because it determines the form that IS takes. Information system is a major determinant in organizational structure. Technology is the fabric foundation that establishes the makeup of the organization. However, the technology develops independent of society, but directly affect the society. The design of an IS concentrates on embedding into the technology a path of functionalities that enable the technology to serve the needs of the organization (Davenport, 1997).
The design process of an IS reflects the underlying assumptions about the role of an IS in an organization. Information system methodologies are thus an assortment of philosophies, techniques, dealings, phases, rules, documentation, apparatus, administration, and guidance for developers of an information system (Maddison et al., 1984, 292). The methodologies are closely linked to the assumed function of an IS in an organization. Methodologies are more than techniques for developing software, they are also assumptions that define and enact the process itself. According to Checkland (1985, p. 35), developing an IS requires input from three components. These include the intellectual framework, methodologies, and application area. The emerging challenge in the development of IS for organizations, mostly constitute issues pertaining to information infrastructure employment instead of IS advancement.
Organizations face a challenge when they try to integrate existing databases and improve the sharing of information within the various departments in the organization. This entails the development of an IS that is not limited by the borders of the departments and link dissimilar sections of the organization. Such a project does not therefore only develop an IS, rather it attempts to incorporate existing infrastructure by redesigning common resources across the non-homogenous community of users. The result is a characteristic complex, tangled, and co-dependent set of shared functionalities, which a typical characteristic of an IS. Information systems development methodologies support the evolution of standalone technologies and are paramount in solving design issues in IS (Maddison et al., 1984, 274).
Information systems development methodologies are of three types. These include the stage whereby the system improvement is conceived as a methodological problem. The intention of this phase is to automate the existing manual processes. In the second phase of development, the development is conceived as a problem of Information Technology (IT). This shifts the focus from the technical aspect of the technology to the usability of the technology. Most of the effort here goes to the identification of user requirements and shifting the development to address those developments. The third phase in the development process is determined by the changes taking place because of a global network. This is a very important phase and a challenge to already existing IS that were designed without considering inter usability. Methodologies in this phase are concerned with designs that facilitate integration. Traditional systems limit the integration of the organizations system using the internet. This limits the usability, especially in cases where the organization and users of the system are not in one geographical location (Checkland, 1985, 280).
Information system designs must be identified as distinct from information infrastructure deployment. Deployment of information infrastructure is concerned with the cultural and technical environment that shapes the development process. For an IS to achieve success in a particular organization, the design/designer must take into consideration the preexisting and disheveled socio-technical environment. The focus in this case is not the development of the tools and rules of use, but in the contextualization of the same to ensure they meet the needs and preferences of the users (Maddison et al., 1984, 300). For an IS to survive the challenges faced by many systems, electronic projects in organizations, and their infrastructures, the designers must understand and manage a number of interdependent factors. Different units within and without the organization, each having different IT software and hardware, share an Information System. The system must also be built on a platform that enables the adoption of new technologies because information systems are always evolving over time and space.
Technical developments in recent times have proven a challenge to existing organizations, such as Virtual Organizations (VO). This is because Information systems that support business processes are information islands, not capable of integrating with other systems. The real perspective of information systems is integrating all business operations, including supply chain management. Some of the recurrent problems in IS development and implementation is requirements capture and unarticulated goals. This often results in deficient systems that fail to meet the required functionalities, which promote resistance in adoption. Some of the IS are dropped without even being used ones. The most common causes of failure in information system is the lack of understanding of organizational culture and social factors that guide the ways in which people work and interact with each other. When new systems are introduced in a work environment, the designer often thinks the work will be done essentially the same way but more efficiently. However, this is not always the case, as often the work system changes in undesirable ways leading to failure of the system (Shapiro & Varian, 1999, 197).
The introduction of a new IS in an organization affects at least six important areas. Some of these include the nature of the work, individual roles, relationships, communication, and structure. To ensure the smooth integration of an IS within an organization requires mutual adaptation. The organization must adapt to the system and the system must adapt to the organization. This creates windows of opportunity, which enable the employees to find possible ways the IS can aid in the carrying out of their tasks without having to change how they work. Therefore, satisfaction depends on the extent to which the designers of the system considered the organizational culture and social environment in the design phase (Checkland, 1985, 238).
Conclusion
To ensure the success of complex IS projects, it is necessary that organizations abandon the view that the intention of Information System is simply to automate. These simple contexts, consider IS as distinct entities capable of adapting to each other. Managing an IS the same as automation systems in industry production line leads to paramount assumptions that hinder the adoption of the technology. Infrastructure development is concerned with the development of tools and rules that are integral in new information system. The concern is such a complex IS even if successfully developed and deployed, face-overwhelming challenges in the adoption phase. The information systems must be developed within the existing social and technological framework.
Although the strategies taken up have helped many organizations implement information systems, there is a lack of comprehensive implementation road map, user satisfaction, system analysis, adaptive control, regular system documentation review, and established technology departments to spearhead the implementation of information systems. Successful implementation of these systems often face challenges related to communication and procurement, structure and process management, human resource management, system design, database design, security of the system, compatibility of hardware and software, and the problem of cost-benefit analysis. Many organizations around the world are making efforts to implement worldwide information systems, especially in resource planning. The successful implementation of such systems imposes a number of complexities to organizations in any country, and a considerable amount of research has been carried out regarding the challenges faced while implementing an information system successfully. These challenges may take different perspectives, such as technical or cultural dimensions, although this largely depends on the particular country of focus.
 List of References
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Maceviciute, E, & Wilson, T., 2005.Introducing information management: an information research reader.London: Facet.
Maddison, R., Baker, G., et al., 1984.Feature analysis of five information system methodologies, In Beyond Productivity: Information Systems Development for Organisational Effectiveness (Ed, Bemelmans, T.) Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., North Holland Press, pp. 277-306.
Marchand, D., Kettinger, W., & Rollins, D., 2001.Information orientation: the link to business performance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Orna, E., 1999.Practical information policies, Gower, Aldershot.
Shapiro, C., & Varian, H., 1999.Information rules: a strategic guide to the network economy. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.