Islamism/Jihadism
is a religious term used by Muslims from the time of ProphetMuhammad to signify
an obligation of a believer to struggle.[i]Jihad
commonly referred to as a holy war, is a Quranic word that has always explained
the duty for Muslim struggle either spiritually or physically in the
determination towards the will of Allah[ii].
Key Muslim scholars have always argued Jihadism as an obligation by
Muslims to
fight for Allah and against Muslim oppression by use of the sword or the
ultimate sacrificing of a believer towards a Muslim struggle in an act called mujahedeen.
Religious fundamentalism is a vice brewed by political interests and uses
religious stands to gain support and acceptance in the given religious setting.
The ultimate liberation from oppression is by use of force in Islamic
fundamentalism as witnessed in most Islamic countries.
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The
word jihad originates from the Quran with 41 appearances stressing on the
crucial practices that a Muslim believer is called to accomplish in this world.
The term can be used to wage a war against non-believers in a measure for
religious expansion as well as territorial defense of a Muslim empire. It
unites all Muslims in an obligation to struggle in deep oneself to build a good
society by fostering peace and calling against secularism, external influences
and the conservation of the Islamic culture. In the Quranic hadiths, Sahih
Muslim claimed that Islam is peace and it calls for all Muslims to fight for
peace and attain submission to Allah[iii],
he explains jihadism as a means of solving religious problems and a collective
responsibility for all believers.
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The
Muslim society perceives jihad as either lesser or greater jihad, generally
signifying the non violent and violent respectively. It’s assumed a noble duty
towards god that comes with a reward as a divine duty towards the true worship
of god[iv].[v]It
has variably been defined as a measure to attain peace, a living principle in
Islam, the struggle to achieve the requirements of Islam and the struggle to
achieve one goal in life.
The world of today is in the wake of
dealings pertaining terrorism. Acts of violence coupled with political values
aggravated with hardline religious faiths have emerged a key disquiet in
today’s world. This paper therefore assesses the impacts of religious
fundamentalism in Islam on the social and economic setup of any given country.
This explains the loss of lives, loss of confidence among the citizens of a
country as well as the tumbling of tourism industry in the respective
countries.[vi]Terrorism
has claimed several lives since 1960s in the first crusade in the spread of
Islam through jihad. Religious fundamentalism has evolved over the years leading
to formation of militant groups that are usually government backed leading to
extreme terrorism. Modern day terrorism has spread to Middle East, America and
in today’s world it has become a threat to all nations of the world[vii]
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The
Islamic leadership can be traced from the times of Prophet Muhammad. After Muhammad’s
death the decision on who to succeed the prophet arose and this lead to
killings that brought the division of Sunni and ShiaIslam. Shia believed that a
successor should be ordained, as a measure to refrain from politics while the
Sunni believed that a successor should originate from ordained infallible
twelve Shia imams[viii]. This explains why Islam is generally divided into Shia,
Sunni and Sufism.
The
history of jihad traces from the times of Muhammad. He put it that a jihad was
a tool to combat non-believers and bring them to submission as an obligation to
Allah. Muhammad brought jihad as a religious obligation to Muslims as a way to
expand religious and territorial boundaries a key tool in the first and the
second crusade in the spread of Islam to the non-believers. Fundamentalists
have argued that it’s the only permissible warfare under Islamic law and
therefore must be embraced by all Muslims as a religious duty. Jihad can trace
its roots from the Islamic conquests during the Islamic expansion under
Muhammad, Rashid caliphate and the Umayyad caliphate. After the death of
Prophet Muhammad in 632 Caliph Umar launched battle conquests against byzantine
and the Sassanian empire in the yarmuk battle and forced the empire to withdraw
from Syria. This conquest was followed by the conquest against Alexandria the
then Egyptian capital. After conquering the land of Egypt with minimal
resistance they expanded conquering Iran and central Asia[ix]. Those were the great conquests in the history
of Islam signifying jihad in action during the spread of Islam under the
command of Caliph. In the spirit of jihad, in 928 Hassan al-bannafounded the Muslim
brotherhood in the land of Egypt in a journey to start a foundation for the
establishment of a caliphate. The brotherhood formed on fundamentals against
westernization was a conservative movement in the strict interpretation of the Quran.
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Similarly,Wahhabism is an Islamic religious
movement of the SunniIslam that advocates for both fundamentalism and the
original teachings of the Quran. The Wahhabis originated from Saudi Arabia in
the 18th century by theologian Muhammad ibn and al-wahhab. Wahhab
formed Wahabbism by convincing AmirUthmanibnmuammar to support him in the
struggle for Wahhabism[x]. In
the kingdom of Saudi Arabia Wahhabism emerged as strong with enormous support
in the Arabian Peninsula through the financial support by Muhammad ibnSaud and
Muhammad ibnabd al-wahhab. Muhammad ibnabd al-wahhab influenced by hadith
teachings and the works of ibntayymiya declared the philosophical
interpretations of ashari and maturidischools claiming to rely on Quran and
hadith teachings lacking speculative philosophy to act within salaf. He
advocated against the Arabs and Muslim world embracing modernization, a decline
in the moral values and the widespread idolatry in the Arab peninsula. He was
against the declining obligation of Muslims to sainthood, shrine and tomb
visitation. Wahhbabism was adopted by the Ottoman Empireand was used as the basis
for Islamic conquests.
The
jihad movement in Islam has seen the brotherhood issue fatwa’s to kill all
American citizens in Iraq and the ultimate 911 bombings in new York by Osama
bin laden the founder of al-Qaida only to mention but a few. In the spirit of
jihad the Muslim brotherhood rioted
violently in Egypt killing the
supporters of President Mubarak who was a non-brotherhood in a move to vote Mohammedmorsi
in, morsi was later ousted under deadly clashes between the opposing supporters[xi].
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The
religion of Islam can primarily be attributed to fundamentalism as can be seen
from the verses in the Quran. The desire of Islam to conquer the world in the
philosophy of submission is a threat to all other religions or the Islamic non-believers
who are not ready to submit to Allah. Taking the Quranic verses in depth,
prophet Muhammad’s teachings can be seen as hateful to people who do not
believe in Islam and also hardcore in order to instill such virtues to his
followers. These teachings of non tolerance to others and lack of diplomacy
portrays Muhammad’s teachings as strict and that they are to be followed as is
the will of god and brings the impression of a forced submission as opposed to
the free will of a human being to the will of Allah[xii].
The Quran’s lack of mercy for non-believers does not only encourage Muslims to
hate non believers, but it also indicates a calling to eradicate the presence
of nonbelievers in the world by using the sword, sacrificing oneself as a duty
towards the will of Allah. These teachings are all centered in the theme of submission[xiii]
to Allah. The war of jihad further prohibits no weapons and calls for all Muslims
to embrace the jihad spirit.
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The
Quran fosters religious fundamentalism; a believer is taught to follow the
Quran to the word and as portrayed by Muslim scholars whom have argued against
innovations and modernization of Islam and advocated for a conservative form of
Islam that is original and none deviated. The world’s opinion against jihad has
served as a motivating factor towards Jihadism in the present day world. The
understanding of jihad as a holy war fills in the desire of every Muslim as a
way of religious and self-defense and serves as a uniting factor for all Muslims
in the spread and the liberation of Islam from oppression. The contemporary
Islamism argues that the present day Islam is under attack and therefore it’s a
duty of every Muslim to protect the interests ofMuslim as well as those of any
other Muslim who may suffer elsewhere.The religion of Islam can generally be
said of comprising fundamentalist hardline teachings by calling on all Muslims
to fight the way of god to those who fight them and cause aggression to god not
for god does not love aggressors. The Quran puts it that during the Islamist
conquests that it was a Muslim obligation and those who die in such a holy war
are treated as martyrs and hold a special position in the heart of Allah and
hence Allah holds for them a great reward for them in heaven. For instance the,
Surah 9.5 says, “Then, when the sacred months are drawn away, slay the
idolaters wherever you find them, and take them, and confine them, and lie in
wait for them at every place of ambush[xiv].”
This signifies how the Quran encourages fundamentalism by legalizing the sword as
a divine tool towards the will of Allah, however the Quranfurther states that a
jihad serves as the last option towards freedom from oppression.
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Religious fundamentalism can be found in
all religions from Christianity, Jewish, Islam, Mormon, Hindu and others[xv];
it entails a conservative religious ideologymingled with anaverage political
interest and the hardcore interpretation of religious documents in hardline
beliefs. The teachings of the madarasa for instance, as a young Muslim a child
is taught to believe that all other people who don’t submit to Allah are
infidels or kafirs and occupy no position in the kingdom of god[xvi].
Taking Muslims for instance the fundamentalism refers to the strict observation
of the Islamic fundamentals using religion as a basis by following the Quran to
the word. The Islamic fundamentalism has at its heart to instill the age of Prophet
Muhammad back to life through political and religious movements and the four
guided caliphs on the pillars of pure Islam.
The
fundamentalism comes primarily through political interests. After the world war
one the united Arab nations under their leader Gamel Abdel Nasser lost the
fight against Israel in 1967 in the six day war, as a result there was
widespread dissatisfaction in the Arab world and they felt that this was Islam
under oppression and cultivated inborn notions towards enmity and
fundamentalism against the western nations and Ussr[xvii]
. President Gamel Abdel Nasser had the widespread acceptance in the Arab world
and all Arabs hoped that he could one
day fight successfully for the rights of all Muslims in the world. The presence
of Israel in the Middle East renders the Palestine’s homeless, the Palestine’s
who are Muslims thus had the favor from the Muslim Arab world in a move to get
their own state. United by the Muslim jihad spirit to fight from oppression, gamel Abdel Nasser engaged in war with
Israel, this move led to the Israel sympathizers like the United States of
America intervening to save the little Israel. The support of Israel by the
united states gave them ultimate defeat over Egypt capturing Gaza, Sinai
peninsula, the west bank and Golan heights, the whole Arab nation was
demoralized with their defeat and thus cultivated hate against the united
states and Israel. The then Arab revolution ends with dissatisfaction as their
able ruler gamel Abdel Nasser dies. The Islamic revolution was thus left
hopeless of such another leader and took the revenge into a self duty that
every Muslim was to fight against their enemies, this led to formation of
terrorist groups like Hezbollah.
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The Arab defeat of 1967 war between the
Arabs and the Americans saw the forceful occupation of the American embassy by
the Arabs in Tehran from November 4, 1979 to january21 1981, this instilled
some confidence in the Arabs that they were capable to resist and deter all the
actions fostered by the super powers, they believed they could wage a winning
war to the superpowers and win hence encouraging fundamentalism[xviii]
following the radio communication on the bombing of the masjid-al-haram, Muslims
holy site at Mecca in November the same year, the Pakistan students took to the
streets heading at the united states embassy in Islamabad and burned it to the
ground. The claim by the Iran’s supreme leader that the attack was masterminded
by the united states brought hate and going by the teachings of Islam the
interference with an holy place calls for a jihad. The Muslim youths thus
rioted burning the whole embassy of the United States. Religious hate was thus
cultivated and they perceived this as an attack on Islam.
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.
The defeat of the soviet union in 1989(Vietnam war) by the Arabs insurgent
groups called mujahedeen saw the Soviet Union leave Afghanistan as losers and
this instilled fundamentalism to the Arabs that they could challenge America if
they had challenged a super power. The war consisted of the soviet led afghan
forces against the Peshawar seven and the Tehran eight. This decade war
starting from 1979 led to the killing of hundreds of thousands of afghan
civilians and thousands of rebels. The Soviet Union later withdrew their forces
after suffering much loss on lives and property and the mujahedeen fighters
united in their jihad spirit emerged as winners. The much loss on Arab civilians was so
hurting to the mujahedeen fighters however they emerged winners, the live with
the grudge to date against their war enemies( the Russians). During the afghan
Russia war, the proceedings acted as a training ground to experienced Arab
guerillas who sought to create resistance by forming terrorist groups on return
to their countries. This at large converted most of the Middle East to Islamic
fundamentalism as they referred to the presence of Russians and Americans as Satan[xix]
in the Arab world and it was their obligation unified by their religion to
eradicate them.
As a matter of politics playing a major
role to the ever increasing Islamic fundamentalism the gulf crisis in the
middle east of 1990-1991 saw the defeat of Iraqi an agonizing endeavor in the
hearts of Arabs. Kuwait’s invasion and annexation by Iraq saw a majority of
nation merge to fight against Iraq in the gulf crisis. Iraqis acts were met
with international condemnation and several nations donated their forces in the
gulf war, Iraq emerged as a loser and all its troops were withdrawn from
Kuwait. It left the Iraqi Arabs distressed and felt painful with the inner
desire to revenge against the westerners. The Arab spirit was torn apart and
the Arab Muslim world was devastated and concludes that Islam was under attack,
so this led to the rise of Islamism that sought for independence of the Arab
world. The defeat of Arabs by the Americans in the gulf war brewed
fundamentalist ideologiesamong the Muslims and this resulted in mushrooming of
terrorist groups that sought to revenge and seek popularity in the ArabMuslim
world in the post-gulf war period. This is evidenced by Iraqis continued
support to terrorist groups like al-Qaeda[xx].
The further rivalry between the United States of America and the Soviet Union
saw the fundamentalist emerge as gainers with the defeat of Soviet Union. The
Arab spirit to defeat a superpower was raised and brewed Islamist
fundamentalists who are the greatest American enemies as of present.
Lastly,
Islamic fundamentalism can be seen as partly aggravated by economic challenges
as witnessed in the Middle East and the country of Somalia as is currently
experiencing terrorists attacks. The fact that most Islamic countries are third
world countries comes with numerous challenges like lack of employment, low
education levels and the eminent high corruption levels in the developing
countries[xxi].
As a result the youth become devastated and fall prey to terrorist
organizations that offer them a job for a living. The high corruption levels
make it hard for the normal citizens to access government utilities and
therefore high poverty levels emerge and since convincing a poor person is an
easy task the youth easily fall prey into these terrorists’ organizations.
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With all these serious difficulties due
to Islamic fundamentalism, the ball therefore lies in our hands to dialogue and
resolve these challenges, even when the future looks unpredictable with the ever-improving
warfare technologies. The first and the most effective measure that can be used
to end Islamic fundamentalism is the correct interpretation of Islamic
doctrines in a religious and not political ways. This can be achieved by the
fatwas issued by Muslim scholars by way of acting within the theme of peace and
shunning the evil in the society by use of force and not diplomacy[xxii].
The integration of Islam and politics is a setback to all these efforts andtherefore
the political setups should be rid of the point-to-point link with religion but
rather create an arena for religion and not politicize the Islamic religion
itself. Generally Islamists claim that politics is a part and parcel of
governing, however with the developing world trying to accommodate all people
of vast doctrines this move curtails the rights of others and hence the
interference with democracy.
Secondly
the other effective way to deal with the ultimate effects of Islamism would be
a measure to end terrorism. This would start from creating an enabling
environment in those countries so that the youths aren’t lured easily into
religious fundamentalism in a measure to serve political interests[xxiii].
Youths would less easily fall prey as they have other means to generate income
and hence a reduction in the Islamist fundamentalist groups
Thirdly
freezing the source of funding to the Islamist groups that recruit the youth to
fundamentalism could be effective too[xxiv].
This would leave the terrorist groups with little influence and hence a
reduction in their Islamic radicalization to the target population. It’s
evident that most of those who become Islamic fundamentalists end up in terrorist
related acts like suicide bombings, generally they don’t do this for free but
rather they are given enough money to accept to sacrifice themselves, freezing
these funds could see less such occurrences and as a result less people would
be interested in the acts.
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Lastly
Islamism is an act perpetrated by sheikhs and imams, usually these religious
leaders have vast influence in their audience and whatever their teachings are
just the reflection of what the audience does[xxv].
Force is not diplomatic but becomes the last options when diplomacy fails,
therefore in my opinion bringing radical sheikhs and imams to the arms of the
law could serve a tool to end radicalization. As a result this will ride off
radical sheikhs who instill fundamentalism in their audience and hence a
reduction in radicalization levels.Information flow can be a crucial weapon too
to end Islamism through change of perceptions even when short-term solutions
are crucial undertakings[xxvi].
In
conclusion, peace is imperative to the existence of humans and indeed all
humankind deserves it. The acts that result from religious fundamentalism are a threat to the
world security and therefore call for each and everyone to change the vice and
make this earth a good place to live. Sound interpretation and judgment of
religious teachings will save the world and it all begins with me and you.
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Things
to change-
1)
highlighted and bolded sentences
2)
there still isn’t a thesis at the end of the opening
paragraph – meaning that the subsequent paragraphs (the essay) isn’t really
arguing for anything
3)
the points are not in chronological order making
the essay disorganized and your points hard to follow
4)
need to spend more time arguing for what fosters
religious fundamentalism because that is what the question asks- this means we
have to reduce the part that says consider the origins ofpresent day Islamism
(this statement was just to guide you on where your essay should go- doesn’t
necessarily mean write pages about it)
5)
you spoke too much about jihadism and at some
point you started becoming repetitive
6)
there is no conclusion
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Footnotes
[i][i]Barr, James. Fundamentalism. Philadelphia: Westminster
Press, 1978.,19-26.
Khan, L Ali. A theory of
international terrorism : understanding Islamic militancy. Leiden ; Boston:
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers43, 2006, 321.
Taheri, Amir. Holy terror : inside the world of Islamic terrorism.
Bethesda: Md. : Adler & Adle, 1987. 97,99.
[i]Marcovitz, Hal. Religious fundamentalism. San Diego:
CA : ReferencePoint Press, Inc, 2010. 68-93.
Weinberg, Leonard, and Ami Pedahzur. Religious fundamentalism and
political extremism. London ; Portland,: OR : Frank Cass, 2004. 33,34,35.
[i]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,, 2002.
1121, 1156, 1306.
[i][i]Herriot, Peter. Religious fundamentalism : global, local
and personal. London ; New York: Routledge, 2009.11-16.
[i][i]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East, from
the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 23-50.
[i]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,, 2002.
1132, 1133.
Fridell, Ron. Religious fundamentalism. New York: Marshall
Cavendish Benchmark, 2009. 18.
Herriot, Peter. Religious fundamentalism : global, local and personal.
London ; New York: Routledge, 2009. 73,74, 79.
[i]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East, from
the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 9-23.
Fridell, Ron. Religious fundamentalism. New York: Marshall
Cavendish Benchmark, 2009. 6-11.
Barr, James. Fundamentalism. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978.
401-486.
[i]Barr, James. Fundamentalism. Philadelphia: Westminster
Press, 1978. 333.
[i]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,, 2002.
965-1003.
[i][i]Gowen, Herbert H. A history of religion,. Milwaukee,
Wis: Morehouse Pub. Co, 1934. 16-18.
[i]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East, from
the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 16-19.
Menzies, Allan. History of religion; a sketch of primitive religious
beliefs and practices, and of the origin and character of the great systems,.
New York: Scribner's Son, 1903. 22-28.
[i]Barr, James. Fundamentalism. Philadelphia: Westminster
Press, 1978. 333.
[i]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East, from
the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 19.
Khan, L Ali. A theory of international terrorism : understanding
Islamic militancy. Leiden ; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers43, 2006.
43-46.
Barr, James. Fundamentalism. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978.
326.
[i]Gowen, Herbert H. A history of religion,. Milwaukee,
Wis: Morehouse Pub. Co, 1934. 22.
Taheri,
Amir. Holy terror : inside the world of Islamic terrorism. Bethesda: Md.
: Adler & Adle, 1987.13.
References
Barr, James. Fundamentalism. Philadelphia:
Westminster Press, 1978.
Fridell, Ron. Religious fundamentalism. New York: Marshall
Cavendish Benchmark, 2009.
Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,, 2002.
Gowen, Herbert H. A history of religion,. Milwaukee, Wis: Morehouse
Pub. Co, 1934.
Herriot, Peter. Religious fundamentalism : global, local and personal.
London ; New York: Routledge, 2009.
Khan, L Ali. A theory of international terrorism : understanding
Islamic militancy. Leiden ; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers43, 2006.
Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East, from the rise of
Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964.
Marcovitz, Hal. Religious fundamentalism. San Diego: CA :
ReferencePoint Press, Inc, 2010.
Menzies, Allan. History of religion; a sketch of primitive religious
beliefs and practices, and of the origin and character of the great systems,.
New York: Scribner's Son, 1903.
Muṭahharī, Murtaz̤á, and Hamid Algar. Fundamentals of Islamic
thought : God, man, and the universe. Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1985.
Taheri, Amir. Holy terror : inside the world of Islamic terrorism.
Bethesda: Md. : Adler & Adle, 1987.
Weinberg, Leonard, and Ami Pedahzur. Religious fundamentalism and
political extremism. London ; Portland,: OR : Frank Cass, 2004.
[i]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,,
2002. 1121, 1156, 1306.
[ii]Barr, James. Fundamentalism. Philadelphia:
Westminster Press, 1978. 333.
[iii]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,,
2002. 965-1003.
[iv]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East,
from the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 23-50.
[vi]Marcovitz, Hal. Religious fundamentalism. San
Diego: CA : ReferencePoint Press, Inc, 2010. 68-93.
Weinberg, Leonard, and Ami Pedahzur. Religious fundamentalism and
political extremism. London ; Portland,: OR : Frank Cass, 2004. 33,34,35.
[vii]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East,
from the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 16-19.
[viii]Menzies, Allan. History of religion; a sketch of
primitive religious beliefs and practices, and of the origin and character of
the great systems,. New York: Scribner's Son, 1903. 22-28.
[ix]Khan, L Ali. A theory of international terrorism :
understanding Islamic militancy. Leiden ; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers43, 2006, 321.
[x]Gowen, Herbert H. A history of religion,.
Milwaukee, Wis: Morehouse Pub. Co, 1934. 16-18.
[xi]Herriot, Peter. Religious fundamentalism : global,
local and personal. London ; New York: Routledge, 2012. 73,74, 79.
[xii]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,,
2002. 1132, 1133.
[xiii]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,,
2002. 965-1003.
[xiv]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,,
2002. 1121, 1156, 1306.
[xv]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East,
from the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 23-50.
[xvi]Gohari, M J. The Quran. Oxford: Oxford Logos,,
2002. 1121, 1156, 1306.
[xvii]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East,
from the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 9-23.
[xviii]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East,
from the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 23-50.
[xix]Fridell, Ron. Religious fundamentalism. New
York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, 2009. 6-11.
[xx]Kirk, George E. A short history of the Middle East,
from the rise of Islam to modern times,. New York: Praege, 1964. 19.
[xxi]Taheri, Amir. Holy terror : inside the world of
Islamic terrorism. Bethesda: Md. : Adler & Adle, 1987. 97,99.
[xxii]Herriot, Peter. Religious fundamentalism : global,
local and personal. London ; New York: Routledge, 2009.11-16.
[xxiii]Taheri, Amir. Holy terror : inside the world of
Islamic terrorism. Bethesda: Md. : Adler & Adle, 1987. 97,99.
[xxiv]Khan, L Ali. A theory of international terrorism :
understanding Islamic militancy. Leiden ; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers43,
2006, 321.
[xxv]Weinberg, Leonard, and Ami Pedahzur. Religious
fundamentalism and political extremism. London ; Portland,: OR : Frank
Cass, 2004. 33,34,35.
[xxvi]Khan, L Ali. A theory of international terrorism :
understanding Islamic militancy. Leiden ; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers43, 2006, 321.
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